Feeding honey bees: 1:1 and 2:1 syrup, fondant, patties

Feeding honey bees in the US: 1:1 and 2:1 sugar water, how much honey to leave by region, fall feeding dates, fondant, candy boards and pollen patties.

Feeding honey bees means giving a colony the sugar or protein it cannot find outside: sugar water when stores are short, solid sugar in winter, and pollen patties when pollen is scarce. Use 1:1 sugar water (one part sugar to one part water) in spring and for new packages, and 2:1 syrup (two parts sugar to one part water) in fall to build winter stores. How much a colony needs depends on where you live: the Honey Bee Health Coalition puts winter stores at about 40 lb (18 kg) of honey in the South and 80 to 90 lb (36 to 41 kg) in the North.

When should you feed honey bees?

A healthy colony that was left enough honey does not need feeding. Feed in response to a shortage you have checked by hefting, weighing or looking at the frames. There are two different jobs:

Feeding for stores: large amounts of thick 2:1 syrup given quickly in late summer and fall, so the bees store it and cap it before cold weather.
Build-up or maintenance feeding: thinner 1:1 syrup, given steadily, which imitates a nectar flow so packages, nucs and splits draw comb and the queen keeps laying.

Mixing them up wastes sugar: thin syrup trickled in during fall is turned into brood rather than stores, and Cornell specifically says not to give 1:1 syrup in the fall.

Feeding calendars by region

There is no single US feeding calendar. These are the dates that extension services and state apiary programs give for their own areas. For the rest of the year’s work, see our beekeeping calendar.

Region (source)	Spring	Summer	Fall	Winter
Northeast (Cornell)	1:1 in April; feed packages and nucs on arrival	Watch stores in a July dearth after the spring harvest	2:1 August to October toward 70 to 90 lb by early October	Dry sugar, fondant or candy board in January and February
Upper Midwest (MSU, Minnesota)	Pollen or substitute mid-February to early March in Michigan	Usually none	Evaluate in September (Minnesota); finish feeding by October 1 in Michigan	Solid sugar only
Central North Carolina (NCDA&CS)	1:1 in February and March if light; remove feeders in April except from new or weak hives	Feed splits initially	1:1 for 2 to 3 weeks in September, 2:1 from the last week of September	2:1 or fondant in December and January if stores are low
Florida (UF/IFAS)	Feed light colonies January and February	Feed light colonies from August	Feed light colonies September to December; in central and south Florida, in September only if there is no flow	Feed if light; colonies can starve
Pacific Northwest (Oregon State)	Commercial operations feed syrup and pollen from late winter	Patties in a pollen dearth	Protein patties used mainly in fall	Sugar bricks; damp is the main risk
California almonds (beekeepers interviewed by HBHC)	Syrup and protein from early January ahead of February bloom	Feed in a dearth	Fall protein, which HBHC recommends only in warm-winter regions	Syrup and protein in January before the move to almonds

When not to feed

With honey supers on. Syrup stored in supers ends up in your extracted honey, which the FDA does not allow to be sold as honey (see the last section).
During a nectar flow. It is unnecessary and fills the brood nest with syrup.
Once the cluster has formed. Cornell says that once clustering begins it is too late to feed liquid. The Honey Bee Health Coalition (HBHC) notes that after frosts arrive, bees may struggle to store syrup.
A queenless, laying worker or seriously diseased colony. Fix or combine it instead.

How much honey do bees need for winter?

Winter stores in the US vary more than anywhere else because the climate does. The HBHC’s 2024 nutrition guide gives these overwintering minimums:

Region	Honey to leave for winter
Warm southern regions	at least 40 lb (18 kg)
Middle states	at least 60 lb (27 kg)
Cold northern regions	80 to 90 lb (36 to 41 kg)

Regional extension targets match that range:

Northeast: Cornell asks for at least 70 to 90 lb (32 to 41 kg) by the beginning of October. Its overwintering page gives a minimum of 80 lb (36 kg) for a full-size hive of two deep Langstroth boxes, and a rule of thumb of leaving at least one full deep of honey, which weighs about 90 to 100 lb (41 to 45 kg) with box, frames and bees. A nuc should have no less than 50 lb (23 kg).
Upper Midwest: MSU says a typical colony needs 70 to 100 lb (32 to 45 kg), about one deep full of honey plus three to four deep frames in the lower box, or two full medium supers plus two to three medium frames in the lower box. The University of Minnesota bee lab winters colonies in three deeps with 75 to 95 lb (34 to 43 kg) of honey, checked in September.
Northern climates generally: the University of Florida’s guide to overwintering in the North puts it at about 90 lb (41 kg).
Central North Carolina: the NCDA&CS calendar uses supers rather than pounds: feed in December if a colony has no more than one super of honey, and in January if it has less than three-quarters of a super.

Checking stores without pulling frames

Heft the hive. Lift the back by its handhold. Oregon State’s rule: in fall a healthy colony should be too heavy to lift; in late winter it can be lighter, but if it feels really light, feed now.
Weigh it. Cornell suggests tipping and hefting or using a hive scale. A luggage scale under the back and then the front, added together, gives a good estimate.
Count frames at the last inspection. On a Langstroth hive, MSU equates 70 to 100 lb with one full deep of honey plus three to four full deep frames.

Cornell also wants at least two double-sided frames of pollen or bee bread available by late winter, because colonies restart brood rearing before the first pollen comes in. Many colonies that starve do so in March, with brood to feed and no flow yet, not in December.

How do you make sugar water for bees?

Use plain white granulated sugar, cane or beet. MSU gives its ratios by weight: thin syrup at 50%, 1 lb of sugar to 1 lb of water, and fall syrup of at least 66%, 2 parts sugar to 1 part water. The University of Florida gives fall syrup as 2 parts sugar to 1 part water by volume. Because a cup of sugar weighs less than a cup of water, a volume recipe is slightly thinner: 2:1 by volume is about 63% sugar, against 67% by weight. Either is fine as long as you are consistent.

Syrup	Sugar	Water	Sugar content	Syrup made	Use
1:1 by weight	4 lb (1.8 kg)	4 lb, or 1/2 gal (1.9 L)	50%	about 0.8 gal (2.9 L)	Spring, packages, nucs, splits
2:1 by weight	10 lb (4.5 kg)	5 lb, or 0.6 gal (2.3 L)	about 67%	about 1.3 gal (5.1 L)	Fall stores
2:1 by volume	8 cups	4 cups	about 63%	about 2 qt (1.9 L)	Fall stores

So a gallon of 2:1 syrup made by weight carries about 7.5 lb (3.4 kg) of sugar. The HBHC guide estimates that a full-sized colony that needs feeding takes about 4 US gallons (15 L) of 2:1 syrup in fall, roughly 30 lb (14 kg) of sugar. Its regional examples run from about 3 to 6.5 gallons of fall syrup per colony in the Pacific Northwest. Our sugar water calculator does this arithmetic for any number of colonies, by weight or by the cup.

Step by step: 2:1 syrup for fall

Weigh 10 lb (4.5 kg) of white granulated sugar into a clean 5-gallon bucket.
Add 5 lb (2.3 L) of hot tap water, about 0.6 gallon. Hot water dissolves sugar faster; you do not need to heat it on the stove.
Stir until no crystals remain. A paint mixer on a drill is the fastest method for larger batches.
Never boil it. Boiling, especially with acid, produces HMF (see below).
Cool to lukewarm before filling the feeders.
Use it within a few days. Throw out syrup that has fermented or changed color; the HBHC guide says it should not be fed.

Cornell advises against two shortcuts: 1:1 syrup in fall, and 3:1 syrup, which is difficult to dissolve and crystallizes. It also says you may add a few thyme leaves or a few drops of thyme oil, but the HBHC guide finds that bleach and commercial feed additives lack proven efficacy, that results for essential oils are mixed, and it advises against additives in late summer and early fall, when robbing is common. Plain sugar and water is enough.

What does it cost?

The US city average retail price of white sugar was $1.02 per pound in September 2026, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Four gallons of 2:1 syrup therefore costs about $30 per colony in sugar at retail, less if you buy 25 or 50 lb bags. That is a good reason to leave enough honey on the hive in the first place.

High fructose corn syrup and invert syrups

Many commercial beekeepers feed HFCS-55 (55% fructose) because it is cheaper by the tanker load and does not crystallize. The HBHC guide notes that colonies fed HFCS have weaker immune systems than those fed sucrose, and MSU warns that HFCS stored hot can contain enough HMF to cause high mortality in cage studies, so storage conditions matter. Invert syrups, in which sucrose has been split into glucose and fructose, are sold ready to use; the HBHC guide notes that homemade invert syrup is made by adding cream of tartar or citric acid, which is exactly the combination of heat and acid that raises HMF. For hobbyists, white sugar syrup is cheaper, simpler and safer.

HMF and sugars bees cannot digest

What is HMF and when is it dangerous?

Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) forms when sugars, especially fructose, are heated, acidified or stored warm for a long time. The HBHC guide and MSU both treat HMF above 30 parts per million (ppm) as toxic to honey bees. The HBHC guide adds that honey itself can reach 30 ppm if stored at 86°F (30°C) for 250 days, heated to 122°F (50°C) for 10 days or heated to 158°F (70°C) for 10 hours. Think of a drum of syrup sitting in a hot barn in Georgia in July.

The European Food Safety Authority’s 2022 risk assessment is the most detailed study of HMF in bee feed. It reports 57 mg/kg (57 ppm) in a commercial HFCS-55, up to 475 mg/kg in an invert syrup and about 6,000 to 14,000 mg/kg in homemade syrup boiled for 30 to 40 minutes at pH 2. It also found that the safe level falls as exposure lengthens: from about 95 mg/kg over 20 days to 15 mg/kg over 180 days, roughly a northern winter. Winter stores are what a colony lives on for months, so they are where HMF matters most.

In practice:

never boil syrup or add vinegar, lemon juice or cream of tartar;
store bought syrup and fondant out of the sun and below about 80°F (27°C) where you can;
do not feed last year’s leftover syrup as winter stores.

Sugars bees cannot use

According to MSU, honey bees cannot digest rhamnose, xylose, arabinose, galactose, mannose, lactose, raffinose, melibiose or stachyose, and most of these are also toxic to them. The HBHC guide adds that bees cannot digest starch or dextrins. That rules out brown sugar, molasses, powdered sugar with cornstarch, candy, soda and dairy products. MSU notes that stachyose, found in soybeans, is toxic unless diluted below 4% in 50% sucrose, which is why soy-based patties are formulated with care.

Fall feeding step by step

Fall feeding comes after two other jobs: taking off the honey and treating for varroa. The bees that will carry the colony through winter are raised from late summer, and they need to be raised in a colony with low mite levels. Our guide to varroa mites gives thresholds and treatments.

Assess every colony after the last harvest: stores, brood, strength and queen. Combine weak colonies rather than feeding them through winter.
Work out the shortfall against your region’s target. A Northeast colony with 40 lb of honey against an 80 lb target is 40 lb short; at roughly 7.5 lb of sugar per gallon of 2:1, that is a little over 5 gallons of syrup.
Start early enough. Preparation in northern climates usually starts in August or September, according to UF. MSU says to finish by October 1 in Michigan, and Cornell warns that you cannot count on feeding past the end of September in upstate New York, though it is sometimes possible into November.
In the South, time it around the fall flow. In central North Carolina, the NCDA&CS calendar suggests 1:1 syrup for two to three weeks in September to stimulate laying, then 2:1 from the last week of September, and notes thick syrup may be unnecessary if the colony has more than three supers of honey or a heavy fall flow. In Florida, UF says to super for a strong Brazilian pepper flow in September and feed light colonies only if there is no flow.
Use internal feeders and reduce entrances. Fall is robbing season. Feed in the evening and feed every colony in the yard at once.
Give large amounts. A hive-top feeder holding 2 to 4 gallons is refilled far less often than an entrance feeder.
Spill nothing. Syrup on the ground or a leaking feeder draws robbers and yellowjackets within minutes.
Check two to three weeks later: syrup taken down, cells capped, weight on target.
Stop when nights approach freezing or the bees stop taking syrup, and move to solid sugar if the hive is still light.

The University of Minnesota guide also feeds syrup in September medicated for nosema; check our guide to honey bee diseases before treating anything you have not tested for.

Open feeding and barrel feeders

Some large operations feed from open drums in the yard. The HBHC guide reports that barrel feeders are either not recommended, for example in Virginia, or illegal, for example in British Columbia in Canada. Open feeding shares syrup with every colony within flying range, including feral colonies and your neighbors’ bees, spreads disease and triggers robbing. Rules on feeding practices, apiary registration and inspection vary from state to state; see our guide to beekeeping laws by state and ask your state department of agriculture.

Winter emergency feeding: fondant, sugar bricks, candy boards and dry sugar

Liquid syrup is the wrong feed for a clustered colony. In winter, use solid sugar placed on the top bars directly above the cluster, opening the hive briefly on a calm, mild day.

Fondant: soft sugar paste, sold in blocks or made at home. Utah State University’s recipe boils the sugar syrup to 235 to 240°F (113 to 116°C), or 224 to 230°F (107 to 110°C) at Wasatch Front elevations. It notes that a fondant patty must be thin enough for the lid to close, and that if it extends to the edges of the box the bees are unlikely to eat it.
Sugar bricks: Oregon State’s bee lab mixes 10 lb (4.5 kg) of white granulated sugar with about 1 cup (240 ml) of water, packs it into trays and lets it harden overnight. Dry sugar also absorbs some of the moisture that is the main winter problem in Pacific Northwest hives.
Candy boards: a shim or inner cover filled with hardened sugar, which Cornell lists alongside dry sugar and fondant for January and February in the Northeast.
Dry granulated sugar: poured on newspaper over the top bars. Bees need water to dissolve it, and the HBHC guide says not to feed weak colonies dry sugar.

Cornell keeps fondant on hand in case colonies need feeding as early as February, and gives a simple warning sign: if you see bees at the hole in the inner cover, they are running out of food and need feeding right away. In March, Cornell suggests replacing empty combs with combs of capped honey if you have them, and continuing to feed until nectar and pollen are available outside. To scale a batch to your colonies, use our fondant and sugar brick calculator.

In the South, winter feeding is a different job. UF’s Florida calendar advises feeding light colonies every month from October to February, warning that colonies can starve, so a Florida colony may need feeding in December, when a northern colony is clustered on its stores.

Feeding packages, nucs and splits in spring

New colonies have no stores and no drawn comb, so they need feed whatever the season:

Packages: MSU says a 3 lb (1.4 kg) package should receive at least two deep frames of honey or 2 gallons (7.6 L) of syrup. Cornell advises feeding packages and nucs on arrival.
Nucs and splits: the NCDA&CS calendar says to feed splits initially, even if there is nectar available, and to remove feeders in April from all but new or weak hives.
Established colonies: Cornell suggests 1:1 syrup in April, in a feeder that holds enough not to need refilling every day, only if the colony is short. Keep at least three to four combs of honey in the hive until the flow starts.

Stop feeding established colonies before the supers go on. The HBHC guide warns that feeding during the honey flow can contaminate the honey and lead to rejected loads.

Pollen patties and substitutes: when do they help?

Pollen is the colony’s only natural protein source. MSU estimates that rearing one larva takes 25 to 37.5 mg of protein, equivalent to 125 to 187.5 mg of pollen, and that a colony collects 22 to 57 lb (10 to 26 kg) of pollen a year. Without it, brood rearing slows and then stops, however much sugar is available.

What a good substitute contains

The HBHC guide recommends diets with about 23 to 30% crude protein, over 20% when colonies are rearing brood, and 5 to 8% lipids. Label values for powders vary widely: the guide lists 47% protein for AP23 and 58% for Ultra Bee high-protein dry substitute. Patties are diluted with sugar, so their protein content is lower: one widely sold 10 lb box of Ultra Bee high-protein patties is labeled at 15% crude protein and was listed at $39.99 in October 2026. MSU also warns that bought pollen can bring in diseases and pests, and notes that bees will load up on any powder that looks like pollen, such as ground corn from bird feeders, even though it gives them no useful protein.

When to feed patties

Late winter: MSU feeds pollen or substitute from mid-February to early March in Michigan, with at least 2 lb (0.9 kg) of patty on wax paper above the brood nest. Cornell says some beekeepers start in February.
Not too late in fall: in the Northeast, Cornell treats September as the last month to feed pollen substitute. MSU explains why: feeding protein in October and November extends brood rearing, and the workers that rear that brood will not survive the winter. The HBHC guide recommends fall and winter pollen supplements only in warm-winter regions such as the Southwest and Southeast.
During a pollen dearth: Oregon State notes that patties are typically fed in a dearth, and that it uses them mainly in fall, with some spring use when weather limits foraging. One Oregon commercial beekeeper waits until there is a reliable pollen flow before starting spring patties.
Before almond pollination: California almonds bloom in February, before most colonies have built up. Two commercial beekeepers interviewed for the HBHC guide start feeding syrup and protein in early January, and another starts protein just before moving colonies to the almonds. A study reported by Washington State University in March 2026, testing a new pollen-replacing feed from APIX Biosciences, run in five commercial operations in California and Idaho, reported winter losses of 15% against 28.8% on a standard diet, and 36% more adult bees after almonds. Those results come from one product and the company that makes it.

Give patties a colony can finish within a few days. The HBHC guide warns that large uneaten patties attract small hive beetles, a real problem in the Southeast. Improving forage is still the best supplement: our guide to plants for bees covers what to plant for each region.

Which feeder should you use?

Feeder	Best use	Advantages	Drawbacks
Hive-top feeder	Fall stores, any season	Large volume; refill without opening the brood nest	Less practical for migratory operations, per HBHC
Inverted bucket or jar over the inner cover	Fall and spring	Cheap; syrup above the cluster	Needs an empty box around it; can drip if the seal fails
Frame or division board feeder	Nucs, splits, small colonies	Inside the hive, limits robbing	Takes a frame’s space; needs floats so bees do not drown
Boardman entrance feeder	Light top-ups	See the level without opening the hive	HBHC says it encourages robbing and needs refilling almost daily
Patty on wax paper	Protein	Right over the brood	Attracts small hive beetles if left uneaten
Fondant, sugar brick or candy board	Winter	No liquid near the cluster	Not for building stores

MSU describes frame, hive-top, entrance jar and bucket feeders, and recommends a floating device in any open feeder to keep bees from drowning. It also warns that in winter, condensation over the inner cover can drip on the cluster and kill bees if ventilation is poor, one more reason not to add liquid feed in cold weather. Match feeders to your boxes: 8-frame and 10-frame Langstroth equipment are not interchangeable.

Keeping syrup out of your honey: FDA, state and organic rules

What the FDA says

There is no federal standard of identity for honey, but the FDA’s 2018 guidance on the proper labeling of honey is clear about added sugar. A product made of honey and another sweetener cannot be labeled with the common name “honey”; it must be called something like “Blend of honey and corn syrup”, with ingredients listed by weight. Honey sold as pure but mixed with sugar or corn syrup may be adulterated under section 402(b) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and misbranded under section 403. The guidance says nothing about how bees are fed, but sugar syrup stored in supers and extracted with the crop produces exactly the product it describes.

State honey standards

Several states have their own honey standards. Florida’s rule 5K-4.027, adopted in 2009, says that honey sold as honey may not have any food additives or any other additions, and limits moisture to 23%. Other states have their own versions, so check with your state department of agriculture if you sell honey.

Four habits keep syrup out of your crop:

no feeding with honey supers on the hive;
stop spring feeding before supers go on;
remove leftover fondant, candy boards and patties before the first super;
never move brood frames filled with syrup up into the supers.

Organic honey

The USDA National Organic Program has no apiculture-specific standards. Researchers writing in the American Bee Journal in 2024 note that organic beekeeping operations are certified under the same standards as beef and poultry, and that the National Organic Standards Board’s 2010 apiculture recommendation was never added to the regulations. Certifiers that use it allow organic honey or organic sugar syrup as feed, but the authors point out that organic sugar costs about 20% more, and that the required forage zone of 1.8 miles of organic or wild land is nearly impossible to meet in the continental US. If you plan to sell organic honey, ask your certifier first.

Feeding honey: only your own

The same authors discourage feeding honey because it can carry American foulbrood spores. Never feed store-bought or imported honey, or honey from colonies that died of unknown causes. A capped honey frame from a strong, healthy colony in your own yard is the best emergency feed you have.

Frequently asked questions

What is the ratio for sugar water for bees?

Use 1:1, one part white sugar to one part water, in spring and for packages, nucs and splits drawing comb. Use 2:1, two parts sugar to one part water, in fall to build winter stores. Michigan State University gives the ratios by weight; the University of Florida gives 2:1 by volume. Weighing is more accurate, but either works if you stay consistent and never boil the syrup.

How much honey do bees need to survive winter?

It depends on your climate. The Honey Bee Health Coalition gives at least 40 lb (18 kg) of honey in warm southern regions, at least 60 lb (27 kg) in the middle states and 80 to 90 lb (36 to 41 kg) in cold northern regions. Cornell wants at least 70 to 90 lb by early October in the Northeast, and Minnesota beekeepers aim for 75 to 95 lb.

When should I start and stop fall feeding?

Start as soon as the honey is off and varroa treatment is under way, once you know the colony is short. In Michigan, MSU says to finish by October 1; Cornell says you cannot count on feeding past the end of September in upstate New York. In central North Carolina feeding 2:1 syrup runs from late September into November. Once bees cluster, switch to solid sugar.

How much 2:1 syrup does a colony need in fall?

The Honey Bee Health Coalition's 2024 nutrition guide puts the figure at about 4 US gallons (15 L) of 2:1 syrup for a full-sized colony that needs feeding. That is roughly 30 lb (14 kg) of sugar. A colony that is nearly empty will need more, and one with a deep full of honey may need none, so heft or weigh before you buy.

Can I feed bees in winter?

Yes, but not liquid syrup once the cluster has formed. Cornell lists dry sugar, fondant or a candy board in January and February in the Northeast, placed on the top bars above the cluster on a mild day. Oregon State uses sugar bricks of 10 lb of sugar and about a cup of water. The Honey Bee Health Coalition warns against feeding weak colonies dry sugar.

Do pollen patties help honey bees?

They help when natural pollen is short, for example in late winter before the first pollen flow, during a summer dearth, or before almond pollination. The Honey Bee Health Coalition recommends diets with about 23 to 30% crude protein and 5 to 8% lipids. Give small patties a colony can finish within days, because leftover patties attract small hive beetles, especially in the South.

Is high fructose corn syrup safe for bees?

Many commercial beekeepers use HFCS-55 because it is cheaper and does not crystallize, but the Honey Bee Health Coalition notes that colonies fed HFCS have weaker immune systems than those on sucrose. HFCS also forms HMF, which is toxic to bees above about 30 ppm, when it is stored hot. Hobbyists are better off with white cane or beet sugar.

Can I feed my bees store-bought honey?

No. Store-bought or imported honey can carry spores of American foulbrood, a disease your state apiarist will want to know about, and the spores survive for decades. Researchers at Penn State writing in the American Bee Journal also discourage feeding honey for this reason. Only feed capped honey frames from your own healthy colonies, ideally from the same apiary.

Sources

Honey Bee Nutrition: A Review and Guide to Supplemental Feeding (1st edition, 2024), Honey Bee Health Coalition
Feeding honey bees, Michigan State University, Pollinator Apiculture Lab
Honey bee nutrition, Michigan State University, Pollinator Apiculture Lab
Overwintering Honey Bee Colonies in Northern Climates (ENY-161, J. D. Ellis and K. Hammons), University of Florida, IFAS Extension
Florida Beekeeping Management Calendar (ENY156/IN848), University of Florida, IFAS Extension
Beekeeping Calendar for the Northeast, Cornell University, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Pollinator Network
Overwintering, Cornell University, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Pollinator Network
Wrapping a Colony for a Northern Winter (Reuter and Spivak), University of Minnesota, Department of Entomology, via Bee Health eXtension
Calendar for Beekeeping in Central North Carolina (Nancy Ruppert, 2015), NCDA&CS Apiary Program, via NC State Extension
PolliNation episode 168: late winter hive management, Oregon State University Extension Service
Bee nutrition, Utah State University Extension
Long-term study confirms pollen-replacing feed strengthens honey bee colonies (March 2026), Washington State University
Evaluation of the risks for animal health related to the presence of hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) in feed for honey bees (EFSA Journal 2022;20(4):7227), European Food Safety Authority, CONTAM Panel
Guidance for Industry: Proper Labeling of Honey and Honey Products (February 2018), US Food and Drug Administration
Florida Administrative Code rule 5K-4.027: Standard of Identity, Honey, Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School
Current challenges for the production of certified organic honey bee products (Bruckner, Underwood, López-Uribe, American Bee Journal, January 2024), American Bee Journal
Average price: sugar, white, all sizes, US city average (APU0000715211), US Bureau of Labor Statistics, via FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Ultra Bee High Protein Pollen Substitute Patties, 10 lb (price and label), Mann Lake